Environmental and geo-life assessment to produce alternative fuel from plastic waste and used motor oil: a sustainable energy approach for Iraq
Main Article Content
Abstract
The environmental impact of oil-based fuels, coupled with the ever-increasing accumulation of plastic waste and used engine oil (WEO), has led researchers to search for sustainable energy alternatives that simultaneously address issues of energy security and environmental degradation. This study aims to conduct an environmental and geo-life assessment of alternative fuel mixtures derived from plastic waste and used motor oil, tested in an external combustion system under controlled laboratory conditions in Najaf Governorate, Iraq. The analyses included evaluating the thermal performance and emission characteristics of fuel mixtures (PDF-WEO) in different proportions of WEO (10%, 20%, and 30%) using pyrolysis plastic fuel (PDF) mixed with used and filtered motor oil. The results showed that the 70/30 blend (PDF/WEO) achieved the highest thermal efficiency of 35.5%, while reducing carbon monoxide and suspended particulate matter emissions by 40% and 37%, respectively. Despite a 24% reduction in NO57 emissions, the study recommends further improvements. This study highlights the potential for hazardous waste to be converted into useful fuel while minimizing the associated environmental impact. The geo-biological perspective also reflects the importance of using clean fuels in areas with high population density and environmental sensitivity, highlighting the importance of circular economy practices and low-emission energy strategies. The findings support the integration of waste-derived fuels as an effective pathway towards a sustainable energy transition in arid regions such as central Iraq.
Article Details
Section
How to Cite
References
Akhtar, M.S., Ali, S. and Zaman, W., 2024. Recent advancements in catalysts for petroleum refining. *Catalysts*, 14(12), p.841. [https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14120841](https://doi.org/10.3390/catal14120841)
Al-Naffakh, J. and Al-Qassab, M.R., 2021. Comparing the growth of renewable energy sources in Turkey, Iran and Iraq. *International Research Journal of Advanced Science*, 2(2), pp.21–26.
Al-Naffakh, J., Al-Fahham, M. and Abed, Q.A., 2020. Burner rim geometry effect on flame stability. In: *IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering*, 671(1), p.012003. IOP Publishing. [https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/671/1/012003](https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/671/1/012003)
Al-Naffakh, J., Al-Qassab, M.R. and Al-Makhzoomi, Z.M., 2021. Share of CO2 emissions in Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait from the combustion of fossil fuels: A statistical study. *Journal of Research Technology & Engineering*, 2(3), pp.114–120.
Apaolaza-Pagoaga, X., Carrillo-Andrés, A. and Ruivo, C.R., 2022. Experimental characterization of the thermal performance of the Haines 2 solar cooker. *Energy*, 257, p.124730. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.124730](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.124730)
Aslam, A., 2024. *Simulation of Solar Thermal Power Heat Exchanger*. [https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe202401193489](https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe202401193489)
Avagyan, A.B. and Singh, B., 2019. Biodiesel: Feedstocks, technologies, economics and barriers. In: *Assessment of Environmental Impact in Producing and Using Fuel Chains*. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5746-6](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5746-6)
Baskar, S., Padmanabhan, S., Raman, A., Venkatesan, M., Ganesan, S., Kumar, K.M. and Mahalingam, S., 2025. A circular economy approach to energy recovery from polymer waste with oxygenated additives as a sustainable fuel. *Results in Engineering*, 25, p.104516. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104516](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104516)
Belay, N.C., Fentaw, B.A., Nallamothu, R.B. and Kebede, M.S., 2025. Performance evaluation of liquid fuel derived from waste plastics for diesel engine applications and emissions characteristics. *Energy*, p.134911. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.134911](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2025.134911)
Benbaha, A., Yettou, F., Azoui, B., Gama, A., Rathore, N. and Panwar, N.L., 2024. Novel mixed solar cooker: Experimental, energy, exergy, and economic analysis. *Heat Transfer*, 53(4), pp.2095–2127. [https://doi.org/10.1002/htj.23023](https://doi.org/10.1002/htj.23023)
Byaro, M., Mmbaga, N.F. and Mafwolo, G., 2024. Tackling energy poverty: Do clean fuels for cooking and access to electricity improve or worsen health outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa?. *World Development Sustainability*, 4, p.100125. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wds.2024.100125](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wds.2024.100125)
Cao, D.N. and Johnson, A.J.T., 2024. A simulation study on a premixed-charge compression ignition mode-based engine using a blend of biodiesel/diesel fuel under a split injection strategy. *International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology*, 14(2). [https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.14.2.20007](https://doi.org/10.18517/ijaseit.14.2.20007)
Careri, F., Khan, R.H., Todd, C. and Attallah, M.M., 2023. Additive manufacturing of heat exchangers in aerospace applications: A review. *Applied Thermal Engineering*, 235, p.121387. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121387](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2023.121387)
Ceviz, M.A., Muratçobanoğlu, B., Mandev, E. and Afshari, F., 2024. A comprehensive review of solar cooking systems. *Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Energy and Environment*, 13(2), p.e516.
Chaudhari, K., Walke, P. and Shelare, S., 2024. Comparative predictive analysis through machine learning in solar cooking technology. *International Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering Systems*, 15(6), pp.543–552. [https://doi.org/10.32985/ijeces.15.6.8](https://doi.org/10.32985/ijeces.15.6.8)
Dutta, N. and Gupta, A., 2021. An experimental study on conversion of high-density polyethylene and polypropylene to liquid fuel. *Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy*, 23(7), pp.2213–2220. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02121-z](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02121-z)
EdwinGeo, V., Fol, G., Aloui, F., Thiyagarajan, S., Stanley, M.J., Sonthalia, A., Brindhadevi, K. and Saravanan, C.G., 2021. Experimental analysis to reduce CO2 and other emissions of CRDI CI engine using low viscous biofuels. *Fuel*, 283, p.118829. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118829](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118829)
Gorjian, A., Rahmati, E., Gorjian, S., Anand, A. and Jathar, L.D., 2022. A comprehensive study of research and development in concentrating solar cookers (CSCs): Design considerations, recent advancements, and economics. *Solar Energy*, 245, pp.80–107. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2022.08.066](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2022.08.066)
Hammad, A.J., Al-Mashhadani, R.A.I.H. and Naama, L.T.A., 2022. The impact of strategic human resources tools on enhancing human competencies: An exploratory study for a sample of workers in the Salah Al-Din Education Directorate. *International Academic Journal of Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management*, 9(1), pp.23–36. [https://doi.org/10.9756/IAJOBHRM/V9I1/IAJOBHRM0903](https://doi.org/10.9756/IAJOBHRM/V9I1/IAJOBHRM0903)
Hansen, S., Mirkouei, A. and Diaz, L.A., 2020. A comprehensive state-of-technology review for upgrading bio-oil to renewable or blended hydrocarbon fuels. *Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews*, 118, p.109548. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109548](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109548)
Hassan, A.M., Alwan, A.A. and Hamzah, H.K., 2023. Metallic foam with cross flow heat exchanger: A review of parameters, performance, and challenges. *Heat Transfer*, 52(3), pp.2618–2650. [https://doi.org/10.1002/htj.22798](https://doi.org/10.1002/htj.22798)
Hassan, T., 2023. *Designing a Solar Cooking System Integrated with PCM (Phase Change Material): Modelling and Economic Feasibility for Rural Communities of Pakistan*. Doctoral dissertation, US–Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E), NUST.
Jafar, I., Al-Qassab, M.R. and Al-Naffakh, J., 2024. A parametric study for air injection correlations in helical coil tube heat exchangers. *Journal of Science and Engineering Applications*, 1(6).
Jamar, A.M.Z.A.A., Majid, Z.A.A., Azmi, W.H., Norhafana, M. and Razak, A.A., 2016. A review of water heating system for solar energy applications. *International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer*, 76, pp.178–187. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.05.028](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.05.028)
Khan, S.Y., Rauf, S., Liu, S., Chen, W., Shen, Y. and Kumar, M., 2025. Revolutionizing solar photovoltaic efficiency: A comprehensive review of cutting-edge thermal management methods for conventional and advanced solar photovoltaic. *Energy & Environmental Science*.
Khoaele, K.K., Gbadeyan, O.J., Chunilall, V. and Sithole, B., 2023. The devastation of waste plastic on the environment and remediation processes: A critical review. *Sustainability*, 15(6), p.5233. [https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065233](https://doi.org/10.3390/su15065233)
Kohse-Höinghaus, K., 2023. Combustion, chemistry, and carbon neutrality. *Chemical Reviews*, 123(8), pp.5139–5219. [https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00828](https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00828)
Kumawat, A.S., 2024. Managing waste by generation of lubricants from waste oils. In: *Lubricants from Renewable Feedstocks*, pp.337–380. [https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394173037.ch11](https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394173037.ch11)
Liu, J., Wang, L., Wang, P., Sun, P., Liu, H., Meng, Z., Zhang, L. and Ma, H., 2022. An overview of polyoxymethylene dimethyl ethers as alternative fuel for compression ignition engines. *Fuel*, 318, p.123582. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.123582](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.123582)
Mariadhas, A., 2025. Transforming plastic waste into biofuel oil: An evaluation and conceptual outlook with implications for transitional energy. *Recent Patents on Engineering*. [https://doi.org/10.2174/0118722121331855241212031631](https://doi.org/10.2174/0118722121331855241212031631)
Maroa, S. and Inambao, F., 2020. Effects of biodiesel blends varied by cetane numbers and oxygen contents on stationary diesel engine performance and exhaust emissions. In: *Numerical and Experimental Studies on Combustion Engines and Vehicles*. IntechOpen. [https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92569](https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92569)
McCorkindale, W. and Ghahramani, R., 2025. Machine learning in chemical engineering for future trends and recent applications. *Innovative Reviews in Engineering and Science*, 3(2), pp.1–12. [https://doi.org/10.31838/INES/03.02.01](https://doi.org/10.31838/INES/03.02.01)
Mehra, K.S., Pal, J. and Goel, V., 2023. A comprehensive review on the atomization and spray characteristics of renewable biofuels. *Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments*, 56, p.103106. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103106](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2023.103106)
Mirsalami, S.M. and Mirsalami, M., 2024. Achieving optimal output of microplastic petroleum waste and improving energy and environmental indicators by optimizing the pyrolysis process and modifying the fuel composition. *Fuel*, 376, p.132699. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.132699](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.132699)
Misra, N., Anand, A., Pandey, S., Kant, K., Shukla, A. and Sharma, A., 2023. Box-type solar cookers: An overview of technological advancement, energy, environmental, and economic benefits. *Energies*, 16(4), p.1697. [https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041697](https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041697)
Nanda, S., Sarker, T.R., Kang, K., Li, D. and Dalai, A.K., 2023. Perspectives on thermochemical recycling of end-of-life plastic wastes to alternative fuels. *Materials*, 16(13), p.4563. [https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134563](https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134563)
Ndem, J.U. and Ogba, E.I., 2017. Competencies required in heliculture by retired university lecturers in post oil boom economy. *International Academic Journal of Innovative Research*, 4(2), pp.39–46.
Ononogbo, C., Nwosu, E.C., Nwakuba, N.R., Nwaji, G.N., Nwufo, O.C., Chukwuezie, O.C., Chukwu, M.M. and Anyanwu, E.E., 2023. Opportunities of waste heat recovery from various sources: Review of technologies and implementation. *Heliyon*, 9(2). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13590](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13590)
Panwar, N.L., Kaushik, S.C. and Kothari, S., 2012. State of the art of solar cooking: An overview. *Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews*, 16(6), pp.3776–3785. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.03.026](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.03.026)
Praveenchandar, J., Venkatesh, K., Mohanraj, B., Prasad, M. and Udayakumar, R., 2024. Prediction of air pollution utilizing an adaptive network fuzzy inference system with the aid of genetic algorithm. *Natural and Engineering Sciences*, 9(1), pp.46–56.
Rahmah, N.M., 2023. Heat exchangers using multi types of nanofluids: A review. *International Academic Journal of Science and Engineering*, 10(2), pp.51–61. [https://doi.org/10.9756/IAJSE/V10I2/IAJSE1008](https://doi.org/10.9756/IAJSE/V10I2/IAJSE1008)
Rashwan, S.S., Nemitallah, M.A. and Habib, M.A., 2016. Review on premixed combustion technology: Stability, emission control, applications, and numerical case study. *Energy & Fuels*, 30(12), pp.9981–10014. [https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b02386](https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b02386)
Riffat, S., Ahmad, M.I. and Shakir, A., 2024. Thermal energy-efficient systems for building applications. In: *Sustainable Energy Technologies and Low Carbon Buildings*, pp.23–120. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-78853-6_2](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-78853-6_2)
Sadeq, A.M., 2024. *Alternative Fuels for Sustainable Combustion*. [https://doi.org/10.13980/RG.2.2.33942.85979](https://doi.org/10.13980/RG.2.2.33942.85979)
Saxena, A., Norton, B., Goel, V. and Singh, D.B., 2022. Solar cooking innovations, their appropriateness, and viability. *Environmental Science and Pollution Research*, 29(39), pp.58537–58560. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21670-4](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21670-4)
Sivakumar, R., Sakthivel, G., Mohanraj, T., Lakshmipathi, J., Jeagdesshwaran, R., Manickavasagam, P. and Govardhan, Y.S., 2024. Solar thermal cooking device for domestic cooking applications: Bridging sustainable development goals and innovation. *Heliyon*, 10(19). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e38415](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e38415)
Srivastava, A., Pandey, S., Shahwal, R. and Sur, A., 2025. Recycling of waste into useful materials and their energy applications. In: *Microbial Niche Nexus Sustaining Environmental Biological Wastewater and Water-Energy-Environment Nexus*, pp.251–296. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-62660-9_11](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-62660-9_11)
Vahidhosseini, S.M., Rashidi, S., Hsu, S.H., Yan, W.M. and Rashidi, A., 2024. Integration of solar thermal collectors and heat pumps with thermal energy storage systems for building energy demand reduction: A comprehensive review. *Journal of Energy Storage*, 95, p.112568. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.112568](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.112568)
Van, C., Trinh, M.H. and Shimada, T., 2025. Graphene innovations in flexible and wearable nanoelectronics. *Progress in Electronics and Communication Engineering*, 2(2), pp.10–20. [https://doi.org/10.31838/PECE/02.02.02](https://doi.org/10.31838/PECE/02.02.02)
Verma, A., El‐Bayeh, C.Z., Buddhi, D., Amir, M., Ahmad, F. and Singh, H., 2024. Socio‐economic impact of solar cooking technologies on community kitchens under different climate conditions: A review. *Engineering Reports*, 6(11), p.e12998. [https://doi.org/10.1002/eng2.12998](https://doi.org/10.1002/eng2.12998)
Wang, X., Jin, Q., Zhang, J., Li, Y., Li, S., Mikulčić, H., Vujanović, M., Tan, H. and Duić, N., 2018. Soot formation during polyurethane (PU) plastic pyrolysis: The effects of temperature and volatile residence time. *Energy Conversion and Management*, 164, pp.353–362. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.02.082](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.02.082)
Zamri, M.F.M.A., Hassan, S.H.A., Tiong, S.K., Milano, J., Bahru, R., Fattah, I.M.R. and Mahlia, T.M.I., 2024. Progress and challenges of mesoporous catalysts in upgraded pyrolysis of biomass for biofuel production. *Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis*, p.106651. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2024.106651](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2024.106651)
Zhou, J., Zeng, C., Wang, Z., Lyu, W., Tang, Y., Wu, D., Ji, W. and Yuan, Y., 2022. Indirect expansion solar assisted heat pump system: A review. *Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments*, 53, p.102409. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102409](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102409)
Zou, L., Liu, Y., Yu, M. and Yu, J., 2023. A review of solar assisted heat pump technology for drying applications. *Energy*, 283, p.129215. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.129215](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.129215)