Assessment of waterborne pathogen prevalence and its impact on the immunological health of commercial fish populations
Main Article Content
Abstract
This paper seeks to critically review the occurrence and variety of waterborne pathogens in aquaculture systems and examine their effects on the immunological status of commercially significant aquatic-based organisms through secondary source material. A systematic secondary data analysis was carried out in 86 publications, released in 2020–25, and found in databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science). The data entailed over 52,000 observations of fish in different geographical locations. The relationships between the pathogen load and immune response were determined using standardized methods to estimate the prevalence of pathogens, Immunological Response Index (IRI), correlation, regression, and meta-analysis. The overall prevalence of the pathogens was 41.3% (12.4% to 68.7%). The most common were bacterial infections (52%), parasitic (31%) infections, and viral (17%) infections. The prevalence was higher in the region of Asia (48.6%) and Africa (44.1%) than in Europe (32.8%) and the Americas (36.5%). The average IRI was 1.12, which represented an average immune response. A strong positive correlation (r = 0.68, p < 0.01) and regression model (R² = 0.46) confirmed that pathogen prevalence significantly influences immune response. The effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.74) was significant due to meta-analysis. The study observes that the abundance of waterborne pathogens has a tremendous effect on the immune health of fish and is influenced by the environment and management. These results highlight the importance of better disease surveillance, early diagnostic biomarkers, and sustainable aquaculture.
Article Details
Section
How to Cite
References
Ammar, A.M., Mohamed, B.E. and Gharib, A.A.E.A., 2023. Motile aeromonads as a Nile tilapia bacterial infection: a review on prevalence, molecular characterization, effect on immune response and alternatives control measures. Zagazig Veterinary Journal, 51(2), pp.112-128. [https://doi.org/10.21608/zvjz.2023.181478.1199](https://doi.org/10.21608/zvjz.2023.181478.1199)
Bjørgen, H., Koppang, E.O. and Nowak, B.F., 2025. Gill health in fish farmed in recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS): A review. Journal of Fish Diseases, 48(3), p.e14057. [https://doi.org/10.1111/jfd.14057](https://doi.org/10.1111/jfd.14057)
Duman, M., Altun, S. and Saticioglu, I.B., 2022. General assessment of approaches to the identification of aquatic bacterial pathogens: a methodological review. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 84(4), pp.405-426. [https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10260](https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10260)
El-Kady, A.A., Magouz, F.I., Mahmoud, S.A. and Abdel-Rahim, M.M., 2022. The effects of some commercial probiotics as water additive on water quality, fish performance, blood biochemical parameters, expression of growth and immune-related genes, and histology of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture, 546, p.737249. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.737249](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.737249)
Fachri, M., Amoah, K., Huang, Y., Cai, J., Alfatat, A., Ndandala, C.B., Shija, V.M., Jin, X., Bissih, F. and Chen, H., 2024. Probiotics and paraprobiotics in aquaculture: a sustainable strategy for enhancing fish growth, health and disease prevention-a review. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, p.1499228. [https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1499228](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1499228)
Getnet, M.A., Mekonnen, M.Y., Yimam, H.M., Berihun, A.M. and Malede, B.A., 2024. Histopathology based study of Nile tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus) as a biomarker for water pollution evaluation in the southern gulf of Lake Tana, Ethiopia. BMC Veterinary Research, 20(1), p.409. [https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04230-5](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-024-04230-5)
Haenen, O.L., Dong, H.T., Hoai, T.D., Crumlish, M., Karunasagar, I., Barkham, T., Chen, S.L., Zadoks, R., Kiermeier, A., Wang, B. and Gamarro, E.G., 2023. Bacterial diseases of tilapia, their zoonotic potential and risk of antimicrobial resistance. Reviews in Aquaculture, 15, pp.154-185. [https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12743](https://doi.org/10.1111/raq.12743)
Hopo, M.G., Mabrok, M., Abu-Elala, N. and Yu, Y., 2024. Navigating fish immunity: focus on mucosal immunity and the evolving landscape of mucosal vaccines. Biology, 13(12), p.980. [https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13120980](https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13120980)
Jaies, I., Shah, F.A., Qadiri, S.S.N., Qayoom, I., Bhat, B.A., Dar, S.A. and Bhat, F.A., 2024. Immunological and molecular diagnostic techniques in fish health: present and future prospectus. Molecular Biology Reports, 51(1), p.551. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-024-09344-5](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-024-09344-5)
Kombo Mpindou, G.O.M., Escuder Bueno, I. and Chordà Ramón, E., 2021. Review on emerging waterborne pathogens in Africa: the case of Cryptosporidium. Water, 13(21), p.2966. [https://doi.org/10.3390/w13212966](https://doi.org/10.3390/w13212966)
Mahdy, O.A., Salem, M.A., Abdelsalam, M., Shaheed, I.B. and Attia, M.M., 2024. Immunological and molecular evaluation of zoonotic metacercarial infection in freshwater fish: A cross-sectional analysis. Research in Veterinary Science, 172, p.105239. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2024.105239](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2024.105239)
Mishra, A., Kim, H.S., Kumar, R. and Srivastava, V., 2024. Advances in Vibrio-related infection management: an integrated technology approach for aquaculture and human health. Critical reviews in biotechnology, 44(8), pp.1610-1637. [https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2024.2336526](https://doi.org/10.1080/07388551.2024.2336526)
Okon, E.M., Birikorang, H.N., Munir, M.B., Kari, Z.A., Téllez-Isaías, G., Khalifa, N.E., Abdelnour, S.A., Eissa, M.E., Al-Farga, A., Dighiesh, H.S. and Eissa, E.S.H., 2023. A global analysis of climate change and the impacts on oyster diseases. Sustainability, 15(17), p.12775. [https://doi.org/10.3390/su151712775](https://doi.org/10.3390/su151712775)
Okpoji, A.U., Ndubuisi, J.O., Eboh-Ajoku, I.O., Emem, J.A., Ekwere, I.O., Alaekwe, I.O., Odibo, U.E., Igwegbe, K.C., Onoja, C.R., Warder, A.B. and InyangAbia, A.J., 2025. Trematode infections and histopathological effects in Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus from the polluted Andoni River, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture, Aquaculture, and Animal Science, 2(2), pp.66-72. [https://doi.org/10.69739/jaaas.v2i2.882](https://doi.org/10.69739/jaaas.v2i2.882)
Rowley, A.F., Baker-Austin, C., Boerlage, A.S., Caillon, C., Davies, C.E., Duperret, L., Martin, S.A., Mitta, G., Pernet, F., Pratoomyot, J. and Shields, J.D., 2024. Diseases of marine fish and shellfish in an age of rapid climate change. Iscience, 27(9). [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.110838](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.110838)
Ruzauskas, M., Armalytė, J., Lastauskienė, E., Šiugždinienė, R., Klimienė, I., Mockeliūnas, R. and Bartkienė, E., 2021. Microbial and antimicrobial resistance profiles of microbiota in common carps (Cyprinus carpio) from aquacultured and wild fish populations. Animals, 11(4), p.929. [https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11040929](https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11040929)
Sabo‐Attwood, T., Apul, O.G., Bisesi Jr, J.H., Kane, A.S. and Saleh, N.B., 2021. Nano‐scale applications in aquaculture: opportunities for improved production and disease control. Journal of Fish Diseases, 44(4), pp.359-370. [https://doi.org/10.1111/jfd.13332](https://doi.org/10.1111/jfd.13332)
Saleh, A.A., Mohamed, A.Z., Elnesr, S.S., Khafaga, A.F., Elwan, H., Abdel-Aziz, M.F., Khaled, A.A. and Hafez, E.E., 2024. Expression and immune response profiles in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) during pathogen challenge and infection. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(23), p.12829. [https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252312829](https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252312829)
Syanya, F.J., Beegum, S., Winam, Z.O., Fariq, F., Khanna, A.N., Lovejan, M., KM, M.R. and Mahadevan, H., 2025. Fish Pathogens and Associated Zoonotic Risks in Aquaculture: A Global One Health Perspective. Aquaculture, Fish and Fisheries, 5(6), p.e70150. [https://doi.org/10.1002/aff2.70150](https://doi.org/10.1002/aff2.70150)
Yue, G. and Guo, C., 2025. Strategies for managing major diseases in Asian seabass aquaculture. Animal Diseases, 5(1), p.6. [https://doi.org/10.1186/s44149-025-00159-w](https://doi.org/10.1186/s44149-025-00159-w)
Ziarati, M., Zorriehzahra, M.J., Hassantabar, F., Mehrabi, Z., Dhawan, M., Sharun, K., Emran, T.B., Dhama, K., Chaicumpa, W. and Shamsi, S., 2022. Zoonotic diseases of fish and their prevention and control. Veterinary Quarterly, 42(1), pp.95-118. [https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2022.2080298](https://doi.org/10.1080/01652176.2022.2080298)